Therefore, Middle Eastern countries' pressure on Sudan increased, particularly for bin Laden's expulsion. Al-Qaeda's next destination was Afghanistan, at the time dominated by the Taliban regime. New York: Harper Collins. At the beginning of , the Taliban authorized the opening of training camps in Afghanistan for al-Qaeda's use. Accessed on January 29, In response to the regime's refusal to do so, Operation Enduring Freedom was launched on October 7, On November 13, , the Taliban fell, but neither its main leaders nor bin Laden were found.
However, even though its capacity to act was harmed, al-Qaeda played prominent roles in other terrorist attacks, particularly an attack on a synagogue in Tunisia, an explosion in a nightclub in Bali both in , explosions in train stations in Madrid in , and metro stations in London in Finally, in May , bin Laden was assassinated by U.
The origin contexts above synthesize evidence that the rise of al-Qaeda came from a turbulent relationship between the West and the Muslim world. As a result, the status quo that they intended to alter was one of asymmetry in which, from the perspective of contemporary militant Islamist groups, Islam was being continually and constantly attacked by Western countries, particularly by the interference of the U.
It was no coincidence that al-Qaeda proposed three main goals. First, it was to serve as a terrorist group in and of itself. Second, it was to act as an organizer, recruiter, and logistical provider for other militant Muslims, incentivizing them to fight beyond Afghanistan.
It is, however, important for us to avoid analyses that tend to understand Islamist militants, above all the most violent ones, as nothing more than contemporary expressions of obscurantisms whose primary target is Western modernity. One can therefore argue that, at least since the 18 th century, the Muslim world has seen itself as being in decline, particularly in relation to European countries.
Given this scenario, several thinkers have connected this situation to the deviations of Muslim governments from Muhammad's teachings. One of the most well-known movements coming from this juncture was Wahhabism, founded by Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab Basically, Wahhab proclaimed that the solution to the social and political problems of the time was a return to the eternal and infallible sources of Islam: the Qur'an and the Sunnah 11 11 The fundamental and canonical sources of Islam are the Qur'an and the Sunnah examples of Muhammad, brought together in collections of records of his words and feats.
For discussions about Muslim fundamentalism and political Islam, see Roy More recently, especially from the s and s on, we have the influence of Sayyid Qutb. Qutb became the main ideological leadership of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt, articulating a vision of Muslim society divided between two distinct and irreconcilable fields: the believers and the unbelievers.
Consequently, it does not seem unreasonable to us to state that the political objectives of al-Qaeda reflect, to some degree, the political and ideological imagery coming from this complex context.
They were certainly influenced by the ideas of Qutb, who considered the West to be a historical enemy of Islam, and that jihad 12 12 Jihad is a term with many possible meanings, usually divided between lesser and greater jihad. Greater jihad refers to the effort or struggle of the believer to stay faithful to God's designs.
Lesser jihad is a combination of external efforts to protect the community and the faith from external attacks NASSER, Bin Laden and his comrades saw government actors' deviations from Muslim teachings and foreign actors' interference as the causes of decadence in the Muslim world. It is no coincidence that the U. In , al-Qaeda published a 'fatwa' 13 13 According to Roy , a 'fatwa' is a legal decision, issued by a religious authority, that discusses topics not mentioned in traditional Muslim sources.
It also clarifies the most correct interpretation of Islamic norms. In addition, in a 'fatwa' published in , it criticized Saudi Arabia and the U. In that same 'fatwa' , there were countless accusations against the Saudi regime, which in addition to having allowed infidels to enter the Holy Land — the most sacred places for Muslims, Mecca and Medina, are in Saudi Arabia — also suspended Islamic law, wasted the oil wealth of the country, and ignored the Palestinian cause, among other crimes BYMAN, a BYMAN, Daniel a , Al-Qaeda, the Islamic State and the global jihadist movement: what everyone needs to know.
Furthermore, it also declared al-Qaeda's support for the conflicts in Chechnya, Bosnia, and Palestine. However, for bin Laden, the first step was to defeat the U. The initial goal would be to concentrate efforts against the U. The next step would then be to overthrow the apostate regimes, creating the conditions for the emergence of authentic Muslim governments.
The definition of the U. New York: Alpha. It is our framework that lets us define al-Qaeda as a terrorist group. We then have the use of terror with the intention to alter the correlation of forces, but it is not expected that the terrorist act in itself will directly alter the result in favor of the group. The statement above can be evaluated by looking at the concrete impacts of the terrorist attacks.
Note, therefore, that significant damage was caused, but that the correlation of forces between the U. Besides, the statement cited above can also be evaluated through the prism of al-Qaeda's finances. Most of their resources are directed to carrying out terrorist attacks 14 14 According to data assembled by Byman a, p.
The cost of the attacks on the London metro were somewhere around 8, GBP. With relation to revenue, al-Qaeda seeks to not restrict itself to just one sponsor country. As a result, al-Qaeda had to diversify its sources of income. Studies in Conflict and Terrorism. Accessed on January 28, Despite these diverse sources of financing, this total would not sustain a direct confrontation with the U.
We therefore have more important evidence that the link between the acts and al-Qaeda's political objective is indirect, which allows us to categorize al-Qaeda as a terrorist group in the terms we have proposed here. Zarqawi even went to Afghanistan to fight against the Soviets, but returned to Jordan at the end of the conflict, ending up participating in groups opposed to the government. However, he was arrested in after batches of explosives were found in his possession.
After leaving prison in , Zarqawi returned to Afghanistan, seeking the support of bin Laden in order to build his organization. Furthermore, bin Laden and Zawahiri disagreed with the extremist views of Zarqawi, particularly with his emphasis on attacking Shiites, who the Jordanian accused of betrayal.
Despite their differences, both groups managed to work together, above all because of the fact that Zarqawi operated in the Levant — a region that spans from Jordan to Syria — where al-Qaeda was fragile. The U. Chosen by then-President George W. Bush to command the provisional authority of Iraq, Paul Bremer took two decisions that contributed to increasing the destabilization of the country. In , taking advantage of this situation, Zarqawi swore loyalty to bin Laden, giving birth to al-Qaeda in Iraq.
This association brought benefits for both groups. Despite these gains, the relationship continued to be permeated with divergences because bin Laden and Zawahiri were pressing for terrorist attacks focused on U. After the death of Zarqawi in June and a series of attacks on al-Qaeda in Iraq when Sunni tribes allied with the U. Bin Laden and Zawahiri looked to intervene, advising the remnants to discard the objectives and tactics designed by Zarqawi and to seek the support of the local population.
The decision taken, however, went contrary to that advice. Shortly before his death, Zarqawi had founded a council composed of various jihadist groups acting in Iraq because he recognized that it made no sense for al-Qaeda in Iraq to compete with them. This council then announced the formation of the Islamic State of Iraq, leading Abu Hamza al-Muhajir, Zarqawi's successor, to swear loyalty to this new body, which was led by Abu Omar al-Baghdadi.
However, in , the Islamic State of Iraq seemed to have its days numbered. Two events, however, ended up helping the Islamic State of Iraq survive. First, after the withdrawal of U. Such a stance galvanized Sunni resistance, throwing it into the arms of extremist movements acting in the country, especially the Islamic State of Iraq.
The second event was the emergence of the civil war in Syria in If the sectarianism between Sunnis and Shiites in Iraq was of the utmost importance in allowing for the regrouping of the Islamic State of Iraq, the Syrian context allowed al-Baghdadi to expand his operation radius.
The border between Syria and Iraq had always been porous, which allowed jihadists to penetrate Iraqi territory. Jihadist groups now returned to Syrian territory and destabilized the country even more. The Islamic State of Iraq took advantage of this situation and entered the conflict, especially through the Jabat al-Nursa organization, which was formed in January Finally, on July 04, , after taking large portions of Syrian and Iraqi territories, Baghdadi declared the formation of a new caliphate, occupying the position of caliph himself.
Like Al-Qaeda, the origin contexts cited above point to the relevance that U. Likewise, the status quo that it so longed to alter was also one of asymmetry between Muslim countries and the West. The difference, as one will see, rests in the justifications for the goals sought by ISIS, as with the means of action, which will be explored in the next section. In ideological terms, however, the biggest difference between the groups was perhaps the apocalyptic bias of ISIS.
It deals with a process of purifying Islam, to the degree that some chosen ones will determine who should be extirpated from the political community, as well as those from outside it who threaten that same community.
Furthermore, Baghdadi, in addition to having a degree in Islamic studies from the University of Baghdad and having worked as an Imam in Baghdad and Fallujah, considers himself to be a direct descendant of the prophet Muhammad, which would legitimize even more his interpretation of Muslim teachings.
This vision of the world presents relevant implications, above all about the definition of enemies of the caliphate. Among its list of antagonists, ISIS believes that it must begin to eliminate those who are closest, such as the Shiites and Kurds, for example.
Rio de Janeiro: Bertrand Brasil. All told, the political objective of ISIS is also the reversal of the situation of the Muslim world's submission. However, in contrast to al-Qaeda, such a reversal has, as stages, the territorial affirmation of ISIS, which implies the definition of local and regional enemies.
This is to be carried out without overlooking, however, the threat that external actors such as the U. To reach the objectives delineated above, it is possible to argue that ISIS has, roughly, two types of main strategies, each of which is related to one of its tasks. With relation to the territorial consolidation of the caliphate, the strategy used is to build a state while its transnationalization involves other means, among them the terrorist political use of terror.
Both the U. Annual Review of Political Science. Taking this path, it seems to us that the events above allowed for ISIS to undertake a war of conquest on the territories and incite a political revolution in the region. The conquest of a territory the size of the United Kingdom is a more concrete example of this.
The second step, however, is understanding which strategies for political stabilization ISIS used. Finally, 'caudillismo' is when the government of a certain country is successively filled by notable figures that can only stabilize it provisionally.
In general, totalitarian regimes stabilize themselves by imposing power bargains between classes, parties, ethnicities, etc. At the same time, they incorporate old structures of power with a new political apparatus, interested above all in a continuous ideological transformation. Such an institutional design has as a goal not only the control of the areas it has seized, but also that of minimizing the impact that the occasional death of one of its leaders could have on the functioning of the organization.
In addition to political bargains with the population for the establishment of a new government structure, another strategy of the foremost importance is the provision of services. ISIS has renovated roads and highways, improvised free community kitchens and looked to guarantee the supply of energy.
These actions are evidence not only of a preoccupation in establishing legitimacy with the populations of the occupied territories, but they also point to efforts to control the territories because, for example, the repair of highways is fundamental for the movement of troops.
However, we cannot forget another facet that has made ISIS become known worldwide: the episodes of abuse and violence perpetrated in its territories. No less revolting are the occurrences of abduction and slavery, targeted primarily against ethnic and religious minorities.
These and other examples allow us to state that ISIS's strategy of local control entails the provision of services and the non-terrorist use of terror, that is, that the use of terror is directly linked to the objective of controlling the local population in the present moment. In: Bringing the state back in. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Establish a presence in societies marked by sectarian, tribal, ethnic, and political tensions; Accentuate these divisions by making use of calculated terrorist attacks, creating internal conflicts or even external confrontations between potential adversaries with the purpose of undermining morale and strength; When the military control of territories is possible, extract all resources possible in order to finance additional expansion; Use, in a planned way, propaganda to air an image of strength; Inspire local leaders and other organizations to swear loyalty to the caliphate; Indoctrinate recruits with the apocalyptic world view of ISIS; and Inspire lone-wolf attacks, that is, attacks from individuals who are sympathetic to the cause, even if not necessary directly linked to the organization.
One can see more clearly that it is in this sphere of activity that the terrorist political use of terror is employed. Some of the stages highlighted above, primarily the second, fourth, and seventh, make use of terror to try to transform in the future the correlation of forces on behalf of ISIS. Like with the case of al-Qaeda, we can also compare ISIS's complexity through the prism of its finances.
As opposed to bin Laden's al-Qaeda, which to a large degree depended on donations, there are reports that Baghdadi's organization administers various financial resources, especially stemming from the annexation of production centers and oil fields.
Given ISIS's ambitious goals, it needs human resources, particularly soldiers, to carry them out. The total number of militants is difficult to pin down.
Accessed on January 27, Even if we take the more conservative estimate, we are dealing with a number that is far from insignificant. We should also add foreign combatants to these numbers. Table 02 presents our comparative framework, based on the analysis carried out on this article.
From the synthesis it presents, we can weave together considerations about the implications of this comparison. Thumbnail Table 02 Al-Qaeda vs. Through the prism adopted here, such a difference is derived from distinct political objectives, despite the two organizations mirroring the desire to reverse a status quo of the submission of the Muslim world to the West.
As a result, equating both groups as terrorist would be imprecise. ISIS is a more complex organization which ultimately aimed to reconfigure the Levant's borders. Furthermore, with different objectives and logics of action, the two groups have different behaviors.
While al-Qaeda privileges terrorist attacks that are relatively cheap and have the goal of transforming the correlation of forces in the future, ISIS — given its ambition to have a regional foothold — makes non-terrorist use of terror while also, however, incentivizing the terrorist use of terror, above all in Europe.
Such a consideration reinforces the arguments against ideas that argue for a direct causality between religion and terrorism. A second consideration is relative to combat. As we have seen, terrorism is a response to a specific sociopolitical juncture and it is therefore not possible to ignore the influence that foreign interference has had on the formation of both groups.
In the case of al-Qaeda, fighting involves fewer strategies of militarization and more investments in understanding what are logistic necessities, such as how to recruit and train militants and how to cut off financing channels.
From a regional point of view, one can argue that the goal of consolidating the caliphate is collapsing, but it would be hasty to argue that the group is definitively finished. As mentioned before, ISIS has two fronts of combat, and it is the regional one that is under threat now.
This brings us to one last point, which is relative to the danger posed by both groups. However, if ISIS continues to lose territory, it would not seem unreasonable to predict that ISIS could also privilege a stance closer to that of al-Qaeda, incentivizing more terrorist attacks on Europe and the U. Consequently, the comparison set out here incentivizes a certain research agenda even more, such as, for example, the recruitment of militant domestic and foreign and the actions of lone wolves, along with reinforcing the argument that terrorism is not something that has emerged spontaneously from the Middle East.
On the contrary, it is intimately linked to the functioning and the contradictions of the contemporary international system. Abrir menu Brasil. Brazilian Political Science Review. Abrir menu. Political Sci.
Table 01 Axes of analysis. Table 02 Al-Qaeda vs. Journal of Conflict Resolution Vol. Political Studies Review Vol. Studies in Conflict and Terrorism Vol. International Security Vol. Carta Internacional Vol. In: The history of terrorism : from antiquity to Al-Qaeda.
International Politics Vol. It originates from a variety of countries and terrorists have multiple ethnic, racial, religious and or political identities and have different views, aims and purposes. Here are some examples:. The most common type of CPS terrorism case has been Syria-related since Daesh took over large areas of Syria and Iraq from onwards. Daesh tactics are geared to attract maximum publicity to amplify the spread of fear; they use violence against anyone who does not agree with their extreme views.
Read the Guidance in relation to the prosecution of offences relating to Daesh and the conflict in Syria, Iraq and Libya revised December Recent years have seen a rise in cases of far right extremism in the UK.
Far right extremists promote messages of hate-filled prejudice which can encourage radicalisation among people motivated by race hate. Groups including the now proscribed National Action have been under scrutiny for promoting offensive, anti-Islamic messages which run contrary to the values of respect and tolerance of different faiths and beliefs. The group uses conventional techniques seeking to recruit new members in the UK to achieve mass civilian casualties.
In four would-be suicide bombers were been found guilty of conspiracy to murder after planning a coordinated attack designed to cause death and destruction on the London transport system.
Those who assisted them were charged and convicted under s38B and received sentences of imprisonment ranging between 4 years 9 months and 13 years. Call the UK Anti-Terrorism Hotline on if you've seen or heard something that you think could suggest terrorist activity. The CPS can apply for special measures so victims and witnesses in terror related cases can give their best evidence in court.
Help us to improve our website; let us know what you think by taking our short survey. Contrast Switch to colour theme Switch to blue theme Switch to high visibility theme Switch to soft theme. Search for Search for. Top menu Careers Contact. Examples include: serious violence against a person or damage to property, endangering a person's life other than that of the person committing the action , creating a serious risk to the health or safety of the public or a section of the public, action designed to seriously interfere with or seriously to disrupt an electronic system.
Are terrorism cases dealt with differently from other cases? Terrorism or not? Substantive terrorism offences In recent years a number of offences and powers have been designed to counter the activities of terrorists. Preparation of terrorist acts S. Collecting Information S. Dissemination of terrorist publications S. Other common offences Toggle accordion. Membership of a Proscribed Organisation S.
Terrorist organisations There is no one type of terrorist or terrorism. Syria Toggle accordion. Extreme Right Wing Toggle accordion. Al-Qaeda Toggle accordion. How to report a crime If you are in immediate danger, call Call the UK Anti-Terrorism Hotline on if you've seen or heard something that you think could suggest terrorist activity. Support for victims The CPS can apply for special measures so victims and witnesses in terror related cases can give their best evidence in court.
Continue reading. Related legislation Terrorism Act Terrorism Act Related guidance Guidance in relation to the prosecution of offences relating to Daesh and the conflict in Syria, Iraq and Libya revised December Providing a quality service to victims of bereaved families in terrorist incidents, disasters and multi-fatality cases: Guidance This document outlines CPS processes for engagement with victims and bereaved families.
Read the guidance. Convictions We publish brief summaries of counter terrorism prosecutions. Leave Website. British man sentenced to 28 months' imprisonment for sharing Daesh beheading videos 01 October CPS authorises charges against third Novichok suspect 21 September Former police officer jailed for National Action membership 30 April Police officer guilty of membership of banned group and terrorism offences 01 April Youngest British terrorist sentenced for neo-Nazi manuals stash 08 February Reading Park killer given whole life sentence 11 January Grammar schoolboy sentenced for encouraging far-right terrorism and possessing indecent images of children 02 November Brother of Manchester bomber jailed for 55 years 20 August
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